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There is a widespread aerial view of ancient India. Nehru observes that in all probability, this India was a collection of small agriculturally based states. There were many tribal republics, some of which covered large areas. There were also petty kingdoms and even city-states with powerful guilds of merchants. Nehru notes that whatever the form of organization, the tradition of city or village autonomy was very strong, and even when an over lordship was acknowledged, there was no interference done the line with a prevalent primitive kind of democracy. The above is illustrated in the working of the four principal kingdom in central and Northern India Kashi, Koshala, Panchala, and Magadha. The local autonomy is seeing as greatly prized in the dramatic narrative, there is altercation when the trader's liberty is severely interfered with cross border taxation by neighboring kingdoms and royal councils take up consequent complaints. Ensuing discussion, local autonomy emphasized class affiliation are mentioned at the elder quote legends of a King army defeated by saga's performing Yajnas and sacrifices with primitive weapons. What emerges is the essential dichotomy between the democratic counsils of shakyas and the autocratic kingdoms of koshala. Despite the Buddha Tathagata's advice to his clan-people to resist if attacked, a treacherous koshala army which does not honour there commitment of honourable détente routs them. The floodgates open to koshalas control with the superior military force and all round devastation wrought in the shakya community. Nehru points out that kingship, originally elective, become hereditary according to the rule of primogeniture. Women were normally excluded from this ride from the first born child. The king (or leader) was held responsible if any thing went wrong. There was council of ministers (or adviser) and some kind of state (or autonomous) assembly. Where there was a king, he was fairly autocratic, thru functioning with establis

Nehru finds in India two streams of thoughts and action: the acceptance of life and the abstention from it developing side by side with the emphasis on the one or the other varying in different period. Yet the basic background of that culture was not on of other -- worldliness or world-worthlessness. Even when it discus the world as Maya (illusion) , it will took the world as it is and tried to live its life and enjoy its manifold beauty, in the Upanishad times, from around 800bc the ethics of individual perfection grew, with the dictum. There is nothing hire then the person. There is a famous story of Nachiketa who journey to the land of the death and pleases Yamraj with his earnest quest for truth. In the promises boon, the youth seeks the ultimate warty of what happens after death. Enunciating the supreme philosophy of life, Yamraj says that only body dies not the soul, which persists to eternity. Nehru refers to men's restless life, ever questioning why, in search of what, dos the water run out and cannot stop its flow for a movement? And the super human confidence: O sun of refulgent glory. I am the same person as makes the what thou art from the strong current of materialism came the Lokayata shastra (folk- based treaties ) as reveled Prabdha Chandrodaya , an extant work derived from the atheist sage Charavaka. The seen is that of nihilism, where the materialists denounces the Vedas, priest craft and traditional beliefs, inveighing against all forms of magic and superstitions then we see the Ajeevika sampradaya (believers in destiny) who are dancing asserting that there is no other world, no heaven or heal , no soul separate from the body. Nehru asserts that both Buddhism and Jainism were break-aways from the Vedic religion. Both lay emphasis on non violence and buildup organization of bhikshus (celibate monks). Nehru feels that there was a certain realism and rationalism in there approach. Writing on the day of Baishakhi Purnima, when the Buddha was both

After the gradual spread of Buddhism in India, Nehru notes that there were processes to bring about racial fusion and amalgamation of the petty states and republics to build up a united, centralized state into a powerful and highly developed empire. Alexander's invasion of the northwest gave the final push to this development and two remarkable men arose who could take advantage of the changing conditions and mould them according to their will. They were Chandragupta maurya, a little known ambitious youth and Chanakya, his friend minister-counsellor, the Brahmin. Nehru cites Vishakhadatta's classic Mudra Rakshasa, a play of the early Christian millennium. Chandragupta accosts chanakya the building author of Artha shastra, on the Ganga-banks and gently persuades him to become his friend, philosopher and guide. Chanakya is misunderstood and insulted by the power full emperor Nanda supported by the Prime Minister Rakshasa of the Magadha kingdom. Exiled and enraged, both leave for Taxlia to meet the Greek Garrisons and eventually Alexander himself. Chandragupta is fired by ambition to emulate Alexander whose conquests and glory are well known, and waits for an opportunity. The news of Alexander's injury and eventual deth in Babylon (323 BC) is that god sent opportunity when Chandragupta and Chanakya rouse the masses and capture taxila immediately. Seleucus, Alexander's general, makes an abortive attempt to reestablish the Greek authority by crossing the Indus, but is roundly defeated by Chandragupta and his allies, brought over by an apple to nationalism. Under chanakya's counsel, peace with the Greeks is bought by Chandragupta marrying seleucus's daughter, ignoring his earlier betrothed suvasini, the Magda counselor's daughter. At nandas court, the lyrical chhau dance of Suvasini mesmerises the emperor who claims the daseuse to become his consort, against protestations of her counsellor father, Shakatara who is imprisoned. Suvasini makes a reluctant bride, but conced

The scene now opens with special entente with virochak, son of the deceased king Poras for jointly ruling the kingdom with Chandragupta on an equally shared bases. This is agreed and chanakyas plans a pincer movement's of troops with an element of surprise into Patallali putra. Emperor Nanda and quen Suvasini are caught totally unawares. The royal couple while fleeing the capital in disguise is discovered and Nanda killed with a poison arrow obviously, in Chanakya's grand stratagem, honesty and humanity come only next to the "empire". A squirming Chandragupta accuses Chanakya to have a heart of stone. The bereaved Quine spurns both chanakyas offer, and Malayaketu's more politically motivated offer to marriage and seeks refuses in the Buddhist monastery. In a last ancounter with Suvasini, now a Bhlkshuni (nun) Chandragupta, Wile looking for patronage of the Buddhist songha (organization), share his personal disillusionment with grand stand politics with her. In a last act of diplomatic skullduggery Chanakya prevent raksha from feeling and instead, persuades him to utillse his emperls talent in the service of noe emperor Chandragupta his erstwhile carchenemy. As Nehru summarises like Machiavelli in Europe, Chanakya was bold and scheming proud and revengeful, never forget his purpose, availing himself of every device to delude and defeat the enemy. He said with the reins of the empire in his hands and looked upon the empror more as a beloved people then as a master. Chanakya's final victory was obtained by sowing discord in enemy's ranks. At the victorious movement, he induced Chandragupta to handover the insignia of his own hi office to the rival prime minister, rakshasa, whos intelegent and loyalty to his old cheaf nanda had impressed him gridy. So the story ends: not in the bitterness of defeat and humiliation, but in reconciliation and in laying the form and enduring foundation of a state. The curtain is drawn when Chanakya demits office. A Nehru's worlds simple

Nehru noted that in South India, for more than 1000 years after the Maurya Empire had shrunk and finally ceased to be, great states flourished. Unlike the virtually land-locked North India, Southern India was especially noted for its trade by sea. They were also sea-powers and thei ships carried merchandise to distant countries. In the south, Chola, Chera, Pandiya, Chalukya and Pallava Empires were coextensive, from before the first century onwards, with their counterparts in the north. Since repeated invasions in North India did not affect the South directly, they led indirectly to many people from the north moving south including builders and artists, craftsmen and artisans. The south became a centre of old artistic traditions and remained a stronghold of ancient culture for centuries. The famous sangam (confluence) literature providing a literary meeting point between the courts and the remote rural areas was a phenomenon of 4th to 1st century BC. With the resonants percussion playing of Mridangam, we witness some of the best Chola sculpture of statuettes and hear recitation of the Sangam poetry Agam verses of internalized romance and love; and Param verses of edullient ambience of festivities. Nehru cites the legend of the northern sage Agastya who went to south to establish bonds between the Aryan and Dravidian civilization. Siloppadikaram was the most famous Tamil epic from the 2nd century BC. By Prince llango Adigal, that has its tale rooted in the ordinary lives from the chera and Pandyan kingdoms, and provides rich cultural knowlwdge to understand both ancient and modern south India thinking. The merchant Kovalan is married to an extraordinarily beautifulKannagi and they live in a haven of bliss, till Kovalan sees a vivacious courtesan Madhavi displaying her classical dance in Mohiniattam style, accompanied by Sopanam music and instruments of vina and Edekka. Kovaln is mesmerized and cannot resist bidding 1000 gild-coins to win over madhavi. When, after h

Having left their old home at Puhar, kovalan and Kannagi undertake a new voyage of life to Madurai with the pair of gold anklets of Kannagi as their only asset. The road is long and arduous, the wayside perils are many, and kannagi is not too fit. The ascetic 'Meta' they meet under a tree-shelter generously offers to come as a fellow wavfarer in the difficult sojourn. A sudden attack by a rustic bully and his ladylove is fobbed off, thanks to the 'Mata'. Avoiding missives from the pursuing Madhavi is a persistent task for Kovalan, as well as ignoring false directions, till they reach the local temple of Kartikeya, a Laka Deveta (folk god), deing propitiated by the village belles dancing and singing Jaya Jaya Shiva Suta Murugan... Unexpected hospitality from a simple village-women is a godsend for them, at which point the 'Mata' leaves them in her hands. The tearful couple finds shelter and succour at a new home and it is time for kovalan to try his luck in business in the bustling city of Madurai. The tired Kannagi settles down with the benevolent houdeholder eho even asks her teenager to arrange with friends some entertainment for her in the form of a kolattam folkdance, executed with striking sticks. But for Kovalan in the unfriendly crowds of Madurai, traders are typically untrusting as in any other city. To make matters worse, his gold anklet has an uncanny resemblance to the queen's recently stolen piece of jewellery and the craft goldsmith has some sekeletons to hide! The king's court is agog with a classical danseuse displaying her Mohiniattamskills, to some discomfiture of the jealous queen, when the goldsmithbarges in and barges in and persuades the king to give him two armed escorts to catch the 'thief. An unsuspecting Kovalan, tried and resting, is nudged awake and inspite of his protestation, is goaded to instant death. when the news reaches Kannagi, her indigation overcome her sorrow and she stride into the royal court, challenging the total miscarria

The seasons and their changing landscapes are always celebrated in out busts of songs redolent in joy. Thus in spring the wide valleys, flower-bedecked mountains, the boating lakes and the romping deer are paid an ode to, in spring's own raga Vasanta.the pitter-patter of the rains are welcomed by the smiling maiden getting happily drenched, to the melody of Malhar, unique to the season. Autumn has the frolicking fish in the ponds and the beaming bevy of children, enjoying sugarcane juice. And, winter has the has somber vina to catch the mood of the wrinkled woman in a threadbare blanket, trying to get some warmth from her smoky oven. According to Nehru, the age of the Guptas was no doubt a golden one enlightened, vigorous and highly cultured, but the efflorescence of culture began in the kushana time. The Ajanta frescoes are full of tenderness and love of beauty and life. Painted by the Buddhist monks, these frescoes take one back into some distant, dream- like and yet real world. We have here women in plenty: princesses, singers, dancers seated and standing, beautifying themselves or in procession. Nehru feels how well those painter-monks must have known the world and the moving drama of life! By the gupta time, even the kings and emperors saw themselves in the image of the Gods and Goddesses as sculpted on their coins. Nehru refers to Kalidasa, acknowledged as the greatest poet and playwright of Sanskrit literature, who probably lived in the 4th century at Ujjain. There was a contemporary playwright Shudrak, known for his tender play Mrichchakatikam (The clay cart). Interestingly, Nehru noted that the language of the old plays of Kalidasa and other is mixed. In the same play, educated people speak Sanskrit and ordinary, uneducated folk, usually women, in Prakrit, the language of the masses. The lyrical and poetic passages which abound are in Sanskrit. The Mrichchakatikam opens with the beautiful courtesan Vasantasena adorning herself and daydreaming about her l

Nehru cited traditions that Kalidasa lived during the reign of the Chandragupta ll Vikramaditya of the Gupta dynasty. Vikramaditya came rested on the literary and cultural brilliance of his court where he collected some of the most famous writers, artist and musicians, the 'nine gems' of the imperial court. As one of the gems, Kalidasa was among the fortunate who experienced life's beauty and tenderness more than its rough edges. His writing reviled this love of life and a passion for natures beauty. In our times Mohan Rakesh have scripted the play Ashadh Ka Ek Din on Kalidasas life in his native village where he thrived early in the romantic companion ship of beautiful mallika. A lovers tryst on the river front is seen as disturbed by a deer-cub short by a hunter, who turn out to be aware of kalidasas poetic prowess. The kings messenger calling the genius to join Ujjain royal court soon arrives and a reluctant mallika bids him adieu. The lovelorn poet writs his long poem meghadutam (the cloud messenger) where a lover made captive and separated from his beloved, ask a cloud, during a rainy season, to cary his message desperate longing to her at Alkapuri, crossing over hills and dales, lakes and rivers, dense forests and roaming deer. Kalidasa in real life, is now confeered royalty under the title 'Matri Gupta' his new princes wife Priyangumanjari, pays a visit to Malika's village out of curiosity-but the indignant Mallika spurns all offers of royal help, now sure that kalidasa would never return. Meanwhile, kalidasa move on his magnum opus, the play Abhijnanam Shukantalam presented here blinding dialogue with full-throated Naty sangeet (dramatic Songs) inspired by kirloskars Marathi musical Shakuntala and sung with gusto by the protagonists to take dramatic action forward. The king Dushanta comes hunting to a forest fair there is the hermitage of the saga canva. The king is prohibited from hunting the hermitage deer, but is offered hospitality bu the sagas beauti

Nehru notes from the fourth century onwards the Guptas ruled for about 150 years over a powerful and prosperous state in the north. For almost another 150 years their successor continued but the empire shrank and became smaller and smaller. New invader from Central Asia were pouring into India and attacking them when some of their chiefs became aggressive in the 7th century , they were crushed by the king of Kanauj, Harshvardana who thereafter build up a powerful state right across Northern and Central India. Although an ardent Buddhist, he encourage both Hinduism and Buddhism. A poet and dramatist himself, he gathered round his court many artist and poet, making his capital Ujjaayini (now Ujjain), a famous center of cultural activities. In the new artistic revival, Banabhatta from Thaneshwar was and important literary figure. Besides authoring Kadambari, india's first novel in prose , he penned harsha Charita, the emperor biography. Here we witness Katha Vachan (story telling) by Banabhatta to his avid listener. Finally Harsha position was consolidated with ujjain as the seat of a powerful kingdom spread over entire north India up to the eastern and western seas, from the Himalayas to Vindyanchal and contain in the south by Pulakesin II of the Chalukya empire. Nehru notes that when Harsha was reigning over his powerful kingdom, Hsuan-tsang, the Chinese scholar pilgrim was studying in Nalanda university. Hsuan-tsang came over land and cross the Himalayas into India. As ardent Buddhist he travel all over the country. In a grand congregation of Shamans, Brahmins and Bhikshus in Buddhist monastery on Ganga-banks, 'Mahayana' wins. But when the monastery gutted by fire cause by opponent, Hsuan-tsang serenely infers that is only proves the point of mortality of every thing in Mahayana conviction! While the arsonist-leader is banished the local prince arragned a daramatic-show for entertaining Hsuan-Tsang and other dignitaries of his own play Nagananda,where he himself

The celebrated statue of Nataraja (dancing shiva) is panned lovingly: his feet, arms, benign face and the evil figure firmly under his foot. Nehru gives the significance of the cosmic dance in Epstein's words: Shiva dances creating the world and destroying it, his large rhythms conjure up vast aeons of time and his movements have a relentless magical power of incantation...The accompanying Bhajan seeking direct communion with god is by Shankara, the great saint of the south, whom Nehru described as a man of amazing energy and vast activities- a combination of a philosopher and a scholar; an agnostic and a mystic; a poet and a saint; in addiction, a practical reformer and an able organizer building up four great Maths(monasteries) at four far corners of India. By the 7TH century the devotional movement of Bhakti militating against the straitjacket of priesthood swayed through the south. We hear popular songs from Pathu-paatu (Ten poems) addressed to Murugan (Kartikeya). We also witness the rise of the Bhakti poetry by Alvar, who compose, on Vishnu, Large number of Prabandham (verses) that bridge the literary language of court and spoken language of common man. We see the powerful Pallava king Mahendravikram Varman being customarily eulogized in court. The king is a playwright too and his farcical play Mattavilasam is enacted after a prologue, in his presence. Pouring scorn over the internecine quarrels among the orthodox Brahmins, Buddhists, Jains, Shaivites, Kapaliks(shakti- worshippers) and Pashupats (sec of Shiva worshippers), the scene shows a burgeoning altercation between a drunkard Kapalik along with female 'Shakti' Devasoma and a capricious Buddhist monk, over the farmer's lost begging-bowl and the appeal to a Brahmin to solve the dispute. They meet a madcap Pashupat on the way and the scene ends in a confused melee. The amused king consoles some of the indignant viewers that god is above all these sectarian division! By the 8th century, the major Nayanar

Nehru observes that in south India, after the lapse of 1000 years after the Mauryan empire collapsed, there were great states like the Chalukya Empire in the west followed by the Rashtrakutas. Further south were the Pallavas who were mainly responsible for the colonizing expeditions from India in the eastern seas. Later came to the Chola Empire that spread right across the peninsula and conquered Sri Lanka and South Burma. King Mahendra Varman of the pallava dynasty adopted the vedic religion and promoted religious consciousness by building temples and settling Brahmins with gifts of land. Trade and commerce flourished with more than 500 businessmen allowed to form a guild. Of the Chola dynasty Raja Raja Chola was contemporaneous with the Turk invasions in the north but was buffered by the Rashrakutas. The Chola dynasty continued their sway over the eastern seas and their ships carried merchandise to distant countries. The story of building the mighty Brihadisvara temple is presented, albeit based on scant historical information, Raja Raja Chola has ruled in Tamil Nadu for sixteen years, yet the mystery of the murder of his uncle and predecessor, Uttam Chola, has not been solved. Blame is laid on his cousin Sundara Chola, who has taken refuge in the neighbourhood kingdom of Chera. The king, after his death, confiscates his family property with in the Tamil territory. Through out all this. 'Rajmata'. The arch aunt-queen, strongly suspects Raja Raja to be guilty of uncle's murder and usurping the throne. To get rid of this suspicion the king offers to build a temple to commemorate Uttam Chola at a site of Rajmata's choice. An unexpected gift arrives from the far-away king of the Shailendra dynasty of Kamboj (Cambodia), with a model of a temple that commemorates the king himself. The idea germinates in Raja Raja's mind: why not build the temple, unparalleled in history, which would carry his own name? A secret plan is hatched away from the knowledge of 'Rajmata' to e

In order to employ the best architect the royal messenger reaches a remote village where the designated architect is preoccupied with a village temple. He is almost forced to abandon his project and come to the Chola king along with his sculptor assistant. Fortunately, later, he is allowed to revert to his village for one year to complete the work there as preparation here would take that much time. Meanwhile, the encounter between Raja Raja and 'Rajmata' hurtles to a showdown as the king reveals his plan to build the grandest of all temples in his own name. Raja Raja is even prepared to fight against the fledgling Chalukya king Satyashreya if a demand for a large Shiva Linga (phallus) from the Narmada riverbed is not met. The architectural plan models the universe with sanctum santorum as the mount Maru and icons of the gods are facing appropriate direction. The temple would be surrounded by walls with in which there would be priestly abodes and out side the walls would rise a brand new city of traders and common man. Soon arrives the mammoth shivalinga, the like of which has seldom been seen. On hearing the enchanting Bhajan on shiva on Chidambaram temple being son in a procession, the king ordains those talent musicians to be brought here . Any religious procession out side would used a bronze icon of Shiva with Nadaswaram accompaniment while the stone icon would reside inside the Temple. A minor affair of heart between the young sculptor and the royal princes is settled short of capital punishment for the farmer, with the due regard to his talent . so-brihadisvara temple comes up as one of the loftiest in India. The son raja Rajinder Chola builds a similar temple near by Gangaikunda Chola Puram . he dies in 1044AD. And the empire stutters to fall. Nehru pauses here to note that in the 1000 years since the first century AD, waved after wave of Indian colonists spreed east and south east to reach shrilanka, Birma (mianmar) Malaya, Java,Sumatra, Borneo, Siam (Th

Nehru records that while Harsha's death in 648 AD ended his powerful reign, lslam was taking shape in Arabic. Its revered prophet Mohammad, who had vitalized his people with faith and enthusiasm, died in 632 AD. Soon after, Arabs carried the banner of lslam right across the Iran and central Asia in the east by the 8th century, but their conquests in 712 AD did not go beyond Sind in India. Though there was no more invasion for nearly 300 years contacts grew between India and the Arab world with Indians getting to know the new religion, Islam, before it came as a political force. Missionaries came to spreed the new faith and they were welcome in the old tradition of India to be tolerant to all faiths and forms of worship. Nehru notes that the new Arab Empire under the Khalifas took the capital to Baghdad. Evenafter the Turks came from Central Asia and Sultan Mahmud of ghazni, a Turk, arose in Afghanistan as a warrior, ignoring Khalifas, Baghdad still continued as the cultural centre of the lslamic world. By 1000 AD, Sultan Mahmud began his raids into India. These raids were bloody and ruthless, and on every occasion Mahmud carried away with him a vast quantity or treasure. As we see, the conflict mounts between Mahmud of Ghazni and Khalifas of Baghdad with the dwindling power of the latter, AI-Beruni, the famous scholar and traveler, and the noted Persian poet Firdausi, author of Shahnama, are both contemporaries of Sultan Mahmud and sing paeans of his praise in court. Al-Beruni seeks permission to come to India and record glimpses of Indian life. Firdausi remains a universally applauded poet. As Nehru notes, Mahmud died in 1030 AD and another 160 years elapsed without further invasions of India or extension to Turkis rule beyond the Punjab. Then an Afghan, Shahab-ud-Din Ghori, captured Ghazni before marching to Lahore and then to delhi. But as we witness here, he is cautioned to compromise by an Indian messenger before launching his vaunted journey against the Raj

We eavesdrop into the bedchamber of Prithviraj and his lovelybride having an idyllic union, with Samjukta serenading her lover. But the bliss is short-lived, as there are rumblings of war needing him to march out,but without any support from other kings due to his illicit affairs. The Langa song narrates his fateful fight against shahab-ud-Din Ghori once again when prithviraj is defeated and held captive. There is no reciprocation of the earlier chivalrous treatment meted out to the Afghan Sultan, and the Rajput king is blinded and thrown into prison. He is repentant for neglecting his fighting skills by being immersed in dalliance. The song revives a legend that Prithviraj avails of an offer to hit his target blindfolded and strikes a fatal arrow on the Sultan's heart by following his voice of command. Nehru muses that Pritviraj lost his life, throne and delhi, the seat of empire all for the love of a woman. But his love is still sung and he is a hero, while Jaichand is looked upon almost as a traitor. As noted by Nehru, Delhi passed into the hands of invaders and the throne was captured by the Slave dynasty ruler Qutn-ud-din Aibak who started building the famous Qutb Minar.1290 AD saw the end of the Slaves dynasty and a great Afghan ruler, Alauddin Khilji, ascended the throne in Delhi. The Afghans, initially rigid in their daith, came as fierce warriors and made India their home and many of them even married Indian women. Alauddin himself married a Hindu lady, and so did his son. The unfolding drama show how Alauddin olans with his minister to develop espionage network, watch the aristocrats and their social relationships like marriages and keep the army in battle-ready condition.on the economic front, he arranges control of prices and market norms for 'profit plus' for conducting business. On the religion front, mass conversions take place, as this helps the Hindus to avoid the vexatious Jiziya tax. The drama also show the Sultan's rapid reprisal system on rece

Nehru notes that the Rajput forces of Chittor became weakened in the early 14th century as a result of Afghan plundering and dominance. The legend of the Afghan Sultan's lust for the charming queen Padmavati of Chittor was a typical instance of morbid feudalism in operation, as recorded in Malik Mohammed Jyasi's 'Padmavat'. The dramatic saga starts with the particular misbehaviour of Tantrik Raghav Chetan who was expelled by Rana Ratansen of Chittor. Dying for revenge, he appears in Alauddin's court and instigates him with tales of Padamvati's beauty-on less than a heavenly fairy's apart from the five other 'jewels' of Chittor like the hunter-tiger and peying bird. Ratan Singh rebuffs the usual messenger from the Sultan, demanding these assest, and the Chittor fort is laid siege upon by the mighty Afghan forces. When the Rana's army gets depleted, the Rajasthani folkdance 'Ghumar' is arranged as a morale-booster. In order to save the army's further shrinkage, Ratansen agrees to a compromise formula to meet the sultan and allow him to see the queen from a distance to satisfy his curiosity. After the proverbial Rajput hospitality is availed of and the queen is appropriately viewed, the unsuspecting Rana is ensnared into Afghan captivity and brought to Delhi as prisoner. The entertainment in Aladdin's court is on with a Kathak danseuse performing Padhanat. Temptation of high reward bring the dancer incognito to Chittor, to coax the desperate queen to come to Delhi as a Yogin to rescue Ratansen. Gora and Badal, to faithful follower of Padmawati, save her from falling into the sultans trap, reach Delhi daringly free the Rana from bondage and away on a waiting horse. Nehru moves onto Mohammad Bin Tughlaq who, too had spread his empire far and wide like Alauddin's. he ruled in the early 14th century and had along reign of 47 years. His son, Feroze Shah Tughlaq , one of the well-known Sultans of Delhi, had a Hindu mother and so did Ghyas-Ud-Din Tughlaq. As recorded by Ne

Nehru refers to the effect of the Turk-Afghan conquest as two fold. On the one hand , those who remained in the Afghan --occupied territory became more rigid and exclusive retiring in to their shells and trying to protect themselves from foreign influences. On the other hand, there was a gradual approach towards these foreign ways both in thought and life. A synthesis emerged especially in music, which, rooted in old Indian classical patron, developed in many directions. The popular language were also developed at the same time. The wave of Bhakti movement was spreading fast to remove caste and creed barriers. In the south, there was Sant Namdev who moved to the north and preached Bhakti to the common man through his lilting songs. Muslim mysticism and Sufism grew, one of whose most venerable Peers was Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmar Sharif. One of his famous disciples was Amir Khusrau, a Turk who was contemporary of Namdev in the 14th century. He was a poet of the first rank in Persian, the court language of the Afghans, and also a musician who introduced many innovations in the Indian classical ragas and musical instruments. We hear some of his Sufi songs and those of Mullah Daud during the time of Feroze Shah Tughlaq. In a romantic interlude, we listen to the langa singer playing on the Ravanhatta instrument describing to King Rupchand the ethereal beauty of one princess Chanda married to Vaman, but ignored and unhappy, and now back in her father's fold. The musical narrative describes together with visuals how the handsome Lorik, shining like the sun, steals Chanda's heart. Taking grave risks, Lorik climbs up a rope to Chanda's chambers and after mutual passion, is reluctantly turned away. In the teeth of Vaman remonstration, Lorik and Chanda cross the flooded river and move to the other shore to set up an idyllic abode. With the passage of time, the helpless Maina spends day and night in sorrow and anger. The repentant Lorik eventually returns a gracious Ma

Nehru records how, late in the 14th century. Timur Lang the Turk, swooped down from the north and smashed up the Delhi Sultanate. After this terrible affliction, North India remained weak and divided into small potentates. But south India was comparatively well off with Vijaynagar as the largest and most powerful of the southern kingdoms. This stste and the city attracted many Hindu refugees from the north. From contemporary accounts, it appears that the city was incredibly rich and beautiful, Said Abdur-Razzak, a traveler from Central Asia: the city is such that eye has not seen nor ear hard of any place resembling it upon the whole earth. There were arcades and magnificent galleries for the bazaars, and rising above them all was the palace of the king, surrounded by many rivulets and streams flowing through channels of cut stone, polished and even... With splendid aerial views of Vijaynagar, we can hear Nehru approvingly quoting Domingo Paes, the Portuguese visitor who came in 1522AD after visiting the Italian cities of the Renaissance: The city of Vijaynagar is as large as Rome and very beautiful to the sight; its is full charm and wander: with its innumerable lake and waterways and fruit garden. Its is the best-provided city in the world and ivory trying abounds. the chamber of the place are a mass of every, with roses and lotuses carved in ivory at the top; Its is so rich and beautiful that you would hardly find any where another such... In the issuing ensuing drama, Krishna, Deva Raya is seen occuping the throne after some place intrigues up standing the aspirant Achyuta Deva Raya. Nehru quotes Paes : his the most fear and prefect king that could possibly be, cheerful of this position and very merry: he is one that seeks to honour foreigners, and receive them kindly, asking about all their affairs whatever the condition may be. We witness the king watching classical Kuchipudi dance presenting mandodari Sabdam and eulogising Ravana in same breath as the king

Nehru recounts that while India had widespread monarchy, the hold of its power different from that of European feudalism where the king had the authority over all persons and things within his domain. In a herarchy of authority, both the land and people belong to the feudal lord. In India, in contrast, the king had the right only to collect taxes from the land and the revenue-collecting power was all he could delegate to others. Thus, the individual peasant paid his due to the aristocrat revenue collector who, in turn, paid it to the king. The scenario opens with a bullock-cart race, which the common man is hugely enjoying. Enacting episodes from masti's Kannada novel Mallige, the landless labourer, Saguna, and his fiancée are accosted by the revenue collector's wife who lords over them, having fixed Mallige's marriage some were else. The lovelorn couple takes recourse to a holy Swami ji who advice prudence and declines to intervene. Undeterred, they pursue Swami ji his urban Ashram and he now advises them not to go against the lady for six months. The lady still insists on getting Mallige settled after five months, when the desperate couple catches hold of the Naik, the higher intermediary and seeks his intervention, which finally comes. The scene shifts to the declining Vijaynagar empire and its decadent feudalism. Ramaraya, Krishna's, powerful son --in- law, thwarts Achyuta Deva Raya, royal treasurer and the nominated successor of Krishna Deva Raya, in his aspiration to the throne. Trouble is brewing in Chandumandal under Udya Varman and needs to be subjugated. In the ensuing battle under Achyuta Raya, the ace rebel shilappa is taken prisoner. Achyuta dies in 1542. Nehru notes that amidst all these internecine feuds, the peasant is unaffected, as there is no advantage in dispossessing him. The twin concepts of landlord system as well as full owner ship by the individual peasant of his patch of land where both introduced much later by the British and had disas

As Nehru notes, in the sunset years of the Hindu kingdom of Vijaynagar, it faced the Bahmani kingdom in the other great state of Gulbarga. The latter is now sit into five states: Bijapur, Golconda, Bidar, Berar and Ahmednagar. There are ample incidents for the involvement of the sultanates in the Vijaynagar succession and vice versa. To enhance his chances, Rama Raya seeks the aid of Bijapur. In fact, Rama Raya seen as a consummate intriguer is safely ensconced as a regent and proceeds to pursue a tortuous policy of advancing Vijaynagar's frontiers by exploiting the rivalries among Bijapur, Golconda and the other Bahmani successors. As the events here show, Rama Raya succeeds in fomenting mutual enmities only too well. During 20years of complex intrigues where Rama Raya believes in making personal appearances rather than sending emissaries, loyal or otherwise, he provokes the sultanates to such an extent that they come to fear for their very survival. He invites, for instance, Adil Shah of Bijapur and entertains him to a spectacular torchfire dance before professing fraternal affection for him. This immediately sows discord against Bijapur amongst other sultanates. It appears likely that Rama Raya occasionally outrages their Islamic sensibilities by intruding while 'namaz' is being offered by a sultan. Certainly, and fatally, Rama Raya over stretches those frayed loyalties on which Vijaynagar's cohesion had depended. In the drama, this becomes evident when the four sultans from the Qutub Shahi, Nizam Shahi, Adil Shahi and Ibrahim Shahi clans patch up their differences and consolidate their gains by judicious inter-marriage in 1564. while Rama Raya refusesto pay heed to the writing on the wall and remain blind in his faith in Vijaynagar's superiority, the four sultans turn on him in concert. To meet the gathering storm, Rama Raya summons his Nayaks even from as far south as Madurai. Most do respond, but the Vijaynagar forces are as seen in the battle scenes, catast

As Nehru observes, while Vijaynagar was flourishing in the south and the petty sultanates reigned in Delhi in the 14th and 15th centuries , there were individual strongholds of Orissa, Bengal and Awadh in the east, and Gujrat, Malwa and Rajasthan in the west. In the north, however, the Turkish, Afghan and Mughal conquests resulted in rapid development of India's contacts with central and Westran Asia. Babur a prince of the Timurind line, established himself on the throne of Delhi in 1526 and his frank dairy Babur-Nama remains a graphic guide to his tempestuous times in India. Under Rna Kumbha of Mewar, the great plateau of capital Chittor was fortified. Drawing upon Jnmaes Tod's Annal and Antiquities of Rajasthan, the curtain opens on Mewar where the princes prothviraj, Jaimal and sangram Singha (later Rana Sanga), sons of King Raimal, are seen heading for a remote-dwelling Yogin to foretell their royal destiny. With the prophecy favouring Rana Sanga, the braggart Prithviraj eliminates Jaimal and attacks and injuries Rana Sanga. Prithviraj is banished from the kingdom, yielding the throne to Rana Sanga. Even with a single hand and a single leg, Rana Sanga is fiercely patriotic and contemplates power beyond Ibrahim Lodi in Delhi inviting Babur. Babur on receiving the missive from Rana Sanga, launches his successful bid in 1525 with a highly mobile force and with the new gunpowder technology. There have breen terminal rivalries after the death of the powerful king Sikander Lodi, amidst his son and successor Ibrahim Lodi in Delhi and his sibling in Jaunpur. In 1526, Babur's army meets Ibrahim lodi's troops with the latter's advantage of 10:2 at Panipat and wins through a superior strategy by attacking on the two flanks as well as from behind, turning the enemy's bulk into his disadvantage. Rana Sanga, who had encouraged Babur to invade, simply hoped for a Lodi rout and then a Mughal withdrawal, leaving the coast clear for his own ambitious. As the song of Guru Nanak

As Nehru noted, Babur died within four years of his coming to India and much of his time was spent in fighting and laying out a splendid capital in Agra. Hanking for Central Asia, Humanyun lost the whole empire in India. Humayun encountered Sher Shah Suri, a well-prepared Afghan contender for sovereignty and, in the ensuing tussle in 1540 near Kunauj, he barely escaped with his life, but the Mughaltroops were decimated. Humayun became a fugitive. The enthroned sher Shah Suri had a short reign, installing energetic administrative reforms with excellent roads, horse-backed postal system and stylized monuments. His remarkable reign came to an end in 1545 with his death. By 1555, Humayun reclaimed Delhi, but stumbled to his death next year. His son Akbar, barely 13, came out of the seraglio where he was under protection of uncle Bayram Khan, as regent, and reigned from 1556-1605. drawing from Abul-Fazal's imperial memoir Akbar-Nama, we see scenes of market prices beign controlled (with Akbar intervening incognito). The young king proceeds to marry jodhabai, the Rajput princess of Amber, and abolishes the discriminating Jaziya tax on the Hindus. As Nehru observes, Akbar surrounds himself with a group of brilliant men devoted to him and his ideals among whom are famous brothers Abul-Fazal and Fyzee, humorist birbal, the trusted Rajput Raja Man Singh and the valiant general Abdul Rahim Khankhana. But the quarrel continues with the orthodox Ulemma, to whom the Sufi saint Sheikh Mubarak is hauled up. Whilw most Rajput chiefs are amalgamated in the imperial system of broad-based Omrah (nobility), Rana Udai Singh of Mrwar, and his valorous son Pratap Singh, prove recalcitrant, notwithstanding Man Singh honest persuasions. Akbar lays a punitive siege of Chittor, but despite the defeat at Haldighat, and flight of Udai Singh and Pratap Singh to sancutuary in the hills Chittor is never re-occupied. As Nehru states, his royal court became a meeting place, almost an lbadatkhana (

Nehru notes that in Jehangir and Shah Jahan's time, the 'Grand Moghuls' were so well established that it attracted trade and commerce from far and wide-Iran Iraq, Egypt and other outlying countries. Meanwhile, the Europeans also came to the western coast. From their port of Bassein, the Portuguese had acquired an adjacent trickle of islands (including Bon Bahia, or Bombay), which afforded good shelter for their shipping and, later on, extracting 'protection money' from the Indian merchants for letting their goods reach the Red Sea by affording naval security. During Jehangir's time, the British navy defeated the Portuguese in India seas and Sir Thomas Roe, an ambassador of James I of England, presented himself at count in 1615 and succeeded in getting permission to start 'factories': starting with Surat and then founding Madras in 1639. the drama unfolds these entangled trading phenomena. We find the Surat trader's guild discussing seriously about their linkages with the Portuguese vis-a-vis the Ahmedabad traders who seem to be opposed to paying the 'protection money', and the emerging English naval power. They are unwilling to get involved with the warfare for the sea-power among the Europeans and wish to concentrate on trade by placating whosoever is in control of the high seas. When a particularly nefarious Portuguese agent is slair anonymously, the matters reach a head and the Portuguese obstruct the imperial merchandise. Shanty Das, the chief of the guild gets panicky at this affront to the royalty and takes the matter to Agra where he gets to know about the latest machination of the English. While prince Khurram, in charge of the wast coast, is afraid of enraging the well-entrenched Portuguese, Shanti Das's guild, true to their business instincts, want to remain clear of the European power-conflict, as long as their merchandise of assuredly heigh quality reaches safe to the Red Sea ports. Roe's hobnobbing at Jehangir's court is for nothing short of undisput

Nehru remarked that Akbar's empire spread far in north and South and his grand rule continued to evoke admiration all over Asia and Europe. The scene opens in 1656 with prince Aurangzeb, as shah Jahan's governor in Mughal Deccan, driving a hard bargain with Golconda's queen. He demands a hefty indemnity, against acceptance of Mughal over-lordship by Golconda, which had put up a hard-fought resistance and colluded with Bijapur earlier .Their wealth had always been a preoccupation of the redoubtable Aurangzeb. But soon the interests of the empire and Deccan police are subordinated to consideration of the sucession. This happened under orders of Shah Jahan, at the behest of Dara Shikoh, Auragzeb's elder brother. The next year, exactly the same situation recurs when Aurangzab invades Bijapur upon the death of Muhammad Adil Shah and Dara Shikoh intervenes anxious to thwart his brother's change of succeeding, Twice disappointed, Aurangzeb has to be content again with an indemnity plus territory. While Dara Shikoh is Shah Jahan's favourite, his designated mouthpiece and heir, and the only Delhi-based contender with the reigns of imperial patronage in his hands, his one failt is that he is not an orthodox Muslim, as a scholar of some repute, he loves to consort with Sufis, Hindus and Christians. Shah Jahan is taken gravely ill in 1657. this information is willfully suppressed and Aurangzab, already deeply frustrated, gets this news from his faithful sister Roshan-Ara. The suspicious Aurangzeb now fears the worst and writes to Dara, alleging suppression of the news of father's death. The latter, preoccupied with a kathak dance, is taken aback but being more interested in Peers and Fakirs, shows no inclination to take up the cudgels of the empire. Meanwhile, the rumour of the emperor's death, or incapacity, spreads and the scare is enough to send the potential successors to arms. While the shrewd Aurangzeb bides his time, Prince Shuja, another brother and governor of Benga

The denouement leads inexorably to Aurangzeb imprisoning his father and not sparing any of the brother. After Murad joins action with Aurangzeb both move north together to fight Shah Jahan's army with a strong artillery-detachment and ample cash enrichment from Bijapur and Golconda indemnities. They win hands down. In 1658, a second and more decisive battle finds the dilattant Dara with a dazzling array of 50,000 facing the resolute Aurangzeb with his dust-smothered veterans from the Deccan. The sunners are allowed to wreak devastation and Dara's forces are decimated. Aurangzabe occupies Agra. Dropping all pretence of rescuing Shah Jahan from the 'infidel' influence of Dara, he besieges the fort and denies even supply of water bargaining for opening the fort-gates. He then confines the ailing emperor amongst the marble-terraces of his Agra fort, where he remains under the lonely care of daughter Jahan-Ara as a semi-senile spectre of his former glory, until death comes eight years later. The feckless Murad is warned by his well-wishers and still enjoys Kathak dance in his court. During another spree of drunkenness and Kathak Mujra, he is inveigled by Aurangzeb's men and suceremoniously beheaded. Shuja, re-emerging from Bengal, is defeated once more, and flees to the distant Arakans and finally unto oblivion. Dara continues to flit from camp to camp through the Punjab, Sind and Gujrat, and is engaged in Ajmer. Having lost his beloved wife en route, he is betrayed and turned over to Aurangzeb. Still a popular figure especially with Delhi's non-Muslims, he is paraded though the streets in chains to their utter dismay and is hacked to death. Nehru notes that the last of the 'Grand Mughals', Aurangzeb tried to put the clock back and, in the process broke it up. The Mughal rulers were strong, so long as they put themselves in line with the genius of the nation and tried to work for a common nationality and synthesis of the various elements in the country. When Aurangze

Nehru notes that during the declining years of the Mughal Empire ;there was a ferment of revivalist sentiments; which was a mixture of religion and nationalism at all in its present sense.An equally important factor was the cracking up of the economic structure and repeated peasant uprising some of them on a big scale. The Marathas, especially had a wider conception, a principal of national attachment which united their chiefs as in one common cause In the growth and consolidation of the new Maratha power Shivaji born in 1627. became the symbol of a resurgent Hindu nationalism. The scene opens with a dialogue between a fort keeper beholden to his task and and a fellow storyteller who recounts the glory, valour and inspirational leadership evinced by Shivaji. The folk poet Srivallabhs balladic songs re-create the halcyon days of Shivaji. Bereaved son of Shahaji and brought up by Dadaji Konde' he has began collecting complaints in his jagir from the oppressed peasants, harassed by the marauding soldiers of both Mughals and Adilshahi kingdom of Bijapur. Shivaji has the highest regard for his widowed-mother Jijabai and takes oath, under her guidance, at the hill top temple of 'Mata Bhavani'. To revive Hindu kingship at a time of awesome and orthodox Muslim supremacy. The ballads relate how Shivaji pines to break away from the shackles of the Bijapur thralldom and chalks out a daring strategy to capture forts in the western ghats and along the adjacent Konkan coast. To start with, it is assault not conflict of Purandher Fort, as a test case. He appeals to a rival chieftain Shankaraji to use his energy and courage, and become the fort-keeper. The ploy succeeds and an ally is born. There is a round of thanks-giving prayers at the Bhavani temple. Nehru comments that while the empire was rent by strife and revolt, the new Maratha power thus began growing in western India.as an ideal guerrilla leader of hardened mountaineers whose cavalry could go far and wide Shivaji drew

Nehru noted that Shivaji, having openly raised the standard of revolt, sacked the city of Surat, sparing the English and their factory, and anforced the Chowth (one-fourth) tax payment, as he did in other distant parts of the Mughal dominions in western India. Since the Marathas stood no chance of driving them off, there is negotiation conducted by Afzal's trusted envoy Krishnaji Shastry. Shiva would make a token recognition of Bijapur's suzerainty and Afzal world leave shiva in undisturbed possession of his forts.

There is an opening panaroma of several impressions painting showing, as Nehru observes, the 1st to 4th Mysore Wars towards the closing years of the 18th century fought by Haider Ali and Tipu sultan. They were formidable adversaries, who inflicted severe defeat on the British and came near to breaking the power of the British and came near to breaking the power of the East India Company. In the scene, we see Haider on his deathbed extracting promises from son Tipu to continue resistance to the British and moves to draw inspiration from the American War of Independence. If they could defeat the English, why not us? Upon Haider's demise in 1783. Tipu symbolically forsakes the throne untilthe last rites and concentrates on organizing joint efforts to drive the British out. For this purpose, he sends enjoys to the Peshwa Nana Sahib of the Marathas, the Nizam of Hyderabad and Nawab Shujaud-Daula of oudh. With remarkable prescience, he plans to mobiles foreign powers too against his adversary by sending missions to the Ottoman Sultan of Turkey in Constantinople and to King Louis XVI of France in Versailles. While, on the home front, he attempts to re-organise the governance of his kingdom on systematic basis, his joint efforts prove futile with Nana Sahib refusing to trust him and the Nizam openly preferring the English to Tipu. His overtures abroad in Turkey come to nothing and Louis XVI, despite professing friendliness, sends only skilled technicians and gardeners but no army. Tipu, outnumbered and outgunned, is faced with a treaty on humiliating terms -- an eight --figure indemnity, the surrender of half his territories, and British custody of his two sons, aged only 8 and 10, as surety. Unexpectedly the terms are all complied with by the 'Tigerof Mysore' and while he is busy restoring his truncated kingdom to an enviable prosperity, there is an extenuating fact that the victorious Napolean has made no secret of his design on the British in India. Governor General W

Nehru observes that as the British become dominat in India as the formost global power they represented a new historic force that ushered in many changes inducted from the West. Bengal witnessed and experienced these agrarian, technical, educational and intellectual change long before any other region of India, as it had a clear 50 years of British rule before it spread over wider areas. In the 18th century, a towering personality arose in Bengal, Raja Rammohan Roy, who combined in himself the old learning and the new. More than a scholar he was a reformer and tried to reforms his own faith, ridding it of evil practices like Sati, that were associated with it. The drama opens with a hapless girl being dragged to the funeral pyre of her ded husband. Rammohun discovers to his horror that it was his sister-in-law, just widowed, who had committed Sati with his mother's tacit approval. Revolting against the cruel custom, he calls for a gathering of scholars, where he forcefully argues against it and calls it murder quoting religious treatises. They vow to spread the message to school widows at one stroke. There is immediate social repercussion from the orthodox community, forcing Rammohan to resign from the membership of Hindu College, which he had founded. The movement, however, spreads and the British educational evangelist, Derozio supports it along with protests against child-marriage. Deeply versed in Indian thoughts and philosophy, a scholar in Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic and adept in Greek, Latin and Hebrew besides English, Rammohun proves a formidable force against the diehard orthodoxy spearheaded by Radha Kanta Deb and forges ahead against idolatry of Hinduism and resolves to establish a monistic Brahmo Sabha. He also persuades a reluctant William Bentinck, the British Viceroy, to persuade the Press to support the reformist movement. We hear the new Brahmo Sabha singing choral Dhrupad to praise one God and to profess egalitarianism against all castes and cre

Nehru observes that when the English first occupied India, there was a sufficiently developed base of industry and the chief business of the East India Company was to carry Indian manufactured goods like textiles and spices to Europe. With the industrial revolution taking place in England, the Indian market was to be opened to British manufacturers. This exclusion extended to other foreign market as well and the flow of Indian goods was prevented within the country itself. Consequently Indian textile industry collapsed, affecting a vast number of weavers and artisans, followed by other industries like shipbuilding, metalwork, and crafts. Nehru further observes that with the rapidly increasing unemployment and poverty, the class colonial economy built up. Indian then become a predominantly agricultural country supplying row material to industrial England at a low price and in turn, providing a market for England's goods. The hapless peasants are stopped from cultivating rice and, instead, forced to switch over to indigo, a necessary row material for the British industry, to be purchased at a low price. Refusal is met with stern admonition and even physical torture. The intellectual weapon to counter the evil is a compelling Bengali play Neel Darpan (The Indigo Mirror) by Deenabandhu Mitra. The first scene shows the oppression of a poor peasant by the British contractor, making indigo cultivation obligatory unless he is provided the services of a comely maiden. The second displays the common man's perception of resistance through humour and banter, until the stick-wielding police close down the play already declared illegal. The helpless peasants rue their fate of giving up rice-cultivation in favour of indigo-farming and recall the meaningful efforts of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, the noted philanthropist and social feformer. The British officials use Indian spices to collect information on organized resistance. Educated Indians send-petition to British India Associa